Figures of Speech in French

Alliteration

Repetition of consonant sounds

We speak of alliteration (l’allitération) when consonant sounds are repeated across several words: the initial consonants (and sometimes internal consonants) of consecutive words produce the same sound repeatedly. These words may appear directly next to each other or may be separated by a preposition or another word.

Alliteration creates imitative harmony. It draws attention to the sound qualities of a sentence by imitating a sound. The line by Jean Racine below is a remarkable example: the repetition of the s sound clearly recalls the hissing of snakes.

Example:

« Pour qui sont ces serpents qui sifflent sur vos têtes? »For whom are these serpents that hiss above your heads? (Jean Racine, Andromaque)

A sentence built on alliteration often sticks more easily in the reader’s or listener’s mind. This technique makes memorization easier thanks to the expressive effect it produces.

Example:

« Chaussez-vous chou, chic et pas cher! »Choose shoes that are cute, chic and cheap! (advertising)

« Un chasseur sachant chasser sans son chien de chasse est un chasseur qui chasse assez bien. »A hunter who knows how to hunt without his hunting dog is a hunter who hunts quite well. (tongue twister)

Talking about the repetition of a consonant sound does not mean that the sound must always be produced by the same letter. For alliteration, the sound must be the same, even if the consonants are different.

Example:

quel capharnaüm!what a mess!

un philosophe fiera proud philosopher

However, we cannot speak of alliteration if two or more words begin with the same consonant but the consonant is pronounced differently in each word.

Example:

la clé du chefthe chef’s key

the same letter appears, but the sounds are different → no alliteration

Note: Alliteration should not be confused with assonance, which is the repetition of vowel sounds.

Allusion

Implicit reference to people, events, or literary texts

An allusion (l’allusion) is a figure of speech in which people, events (often historical), or texts are evoked without being explicitly mentioned, assuming they are already known to everyone. This stylistic device is used to illustrate a statement or emphasize an argument.

Allusions are generally brief and implicitly refer to something widely known, for example:

• well-known figures
• historical events
• Greek mythology
• literature
• biblical stories

When such an analogy is used, it is assumed that the people, events, stories, or ideas mentioned are familiar to the audience. Allusion therefore relies on shared cultural references. It quickly creates connections in the reader’s or listener’s mind between different times, places, or people. As a result, just a few words can be enough to build an allusion.

This technique has several advantages:

• The author or speaker avoids long explanations.
• The reader or listener becomes more actively involved, since their imagination is engaged.
• The message leaves a stronger impression, because it is both suggested and illustrated.

Used for praise as well as satire, allusion can also express criticism while avoiding direct confrontation or censorship.

Example:

Il est un petit Napoléon.He is a little Napoleon.

Over time, some allusions to historical events, mythology, or the Bible have become idiomatic expressions.

Example:

Quel Tartuffe!What a hypocrite!

Tartuffe ou l’Imposteur is a play written by Molière. Tartuffe is one of the main characters. Today, calling someone a Tartuffe means calling them a hypocrite.

s’en laver les mainsto wash one’s hands of something

This expression alludes to Pontius Pilate, who condemned Jesus to death to satisfy the crowd and washed his hands to symbolize his innocence in the matter. The expression means refusing to take responsibility for something or showing complete indifference toward it.

vieux comme Mathusalemas old as Methuselah

This expression alludes to Methuselah, the oldest person (969 years old!) mentioned in the Old Testament.

Anaphora

Repetition of the same word at the beginning of sentences

Anaphora (l’anaphore) is a stylistic device that consists of repeating the same word or expression at the beginning of several consecutive lines, sentences, or clauses. It creates an effect of emphasis and symmetry, and helps highlight an idea.

Example:

« Paris ! Paris outragé ! Paris brisé ! Paris martyrisé ! Mais Paris, libéré ! »Paris! Paris outraged! Paris broken! Paris martyred! But Paris—liberated! (Charles de Gaulle, Discours de l’Hôtel de Ville de Paris, 25 août 1944)

The repetition of the word Paris in this political context gives the speech extraordinary power. It creates an ascending progression that culminates in the climax: “libéré.”

« J’attire en me vengeant sa haine et sa colère
J’attire ses mépris en ne me vengeant pas. »By taking revenge I draw his hatred and anger;
By not taking revenge I draw his contempt. (Pierre Corneille, Le Cid)

In this example, the anaphora highlights the hero’s inner conflict by creating a parallel between the affirmative sentence and the negative one. Don Rodrigue faces what we would today call a “Cornelian dilemma.”

Anaphora is often used together with parallelism.

Antithesis

Juxtaposition of two opposite words or expressions that highlights a contrast

Antithesis (l’antithèse) is a figure of speech that brings together two strongly opposed words, ideas, or expressions in order to highlight their contrast. The striking effect of antithesis comes both from the contrast itself and from the symmetry that emphasizes it. The two parts of the sentence are often constructed symmetrically so that the reader’s or listener’s attention is focused on the opposition.

Example:

« C’est un petit pas pour l’homme, mais un grand pas pour l’humanité. »That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind. (Neil Armstrong)

« C'était un homme mort qui vivait encore »He was a dead man who was still alive. (Louis Caron, Le canard de bois)

Assonance

Repetition of vowel sounds

Assonance (l’assonance) is the repetition of the same vowel sound—and often the same vowel—within a sentence, a line of verse, or a short text. The same sound appears at close intervals, but the words containing the vowels do not necessarily have to stand next to each other.

Example:

« Tout m’afflige et me nuit, et conspire à me nuire »Everything afflicts me and harms me, and conspires to harm me. (Jean Racine, Phèdre)

Assonance can simply serve as a way of emphasizing a sound, but the effect is often expressive and harmonious. As with alliteration, the interpretation of assonance can be somewhat subjective and sometimes complex. In the famous lines below, the repetition of the sounds [o], [œ], [ɔ] and [ɔ̃] emphasizes the poet’s sadness and nostalgia, creating a feeling of languor.

Example:

« Les sanglots longs

Des violons

De l’automne

Blessent mon cœur

D’une langueur

Monotone »The long sobs
Of the violins
Of autumn
Wound my heart
With a languor
Monotonous. (Paul Verlaine, Poèmes saturniens, « Chanson d’automne »)

Do not confuse assonance with alliteration, which is the repetition of consonant sounds.

Chiasmus

Terms arranged in a crossed structure (AB / BA)

Chiasmus (le chiasme) is a figure of speech based on symmetry. It contains four elements that function in pairs: the two elements in each pair must have the same grammatical role and nature in the sentence. The last two elements are placed in the reverse order of the first two.

The structure of a chiasmus follows the pattern: A – B / B – A

Example:

Un roi chantait en bas, en haut mourait un Dieu.A king was singing below; above, a god was dying. (Victor Hugo, La Légende des siècles, « Booz endormi »)

roi/Dieu = subject nouns

en bas / en haut = adverbs

Vous êtes aujourd’hui ce qu’autrefois je fus.You are today what I once was. (Pierre Corneille, Le Cid, Acte I, Scène 3)

êtes/fus = verb

aujourd’hui/autrefois = adverb

Ayant le feu pour père, et pour mère la cendre.Having fire for a father, and ashes for a mother. (Agrippa d’Aubigné, Les Tragiques)

feu/cendre = direct object nouns

père/mère = complementary nouns

Reversal (réversion) is a particular form of chiasmus in which the paired elements are identical.

Example:

Il faut manger pour vivre et non pas vivre pour manger.One must eat to live, not live to eat. (Molière, L’Avare, Acte III, Scène 1)

Vivre simplement pour que d’autres puissent simplement vivre.Live simply so that others may simply live. (Gandhi)

Comparison

Linking two elements using a comparison marker

A comparison (la comparaison) establishes an analogy between two elements. It consists of bringing together two objects of thought (a person, animal, object, abstract idea, etc.) that share a common point, in order to highlight their similarity or difference. It is formed with a comparison marker, which can be a conjunction or an adverb (comme, ainsi que…), an adjective (tel…), or a verb (ressembler…).

A comparison generally consists of four elements:

• the thing compared (A)
• the thing it is compared with (B)
• the comparison marker
• the point of comparison or shared feature (sometimes omitted)

Basic structure: A is like B

Other possible structures:

• A is not like B
• A is more/less … than B
• A is as … as B
• A is comparable to B
• A is almost like B

Example:

Les enfants sont comme des éponges. Ils absorbent tout ce qu’on leur apprend.Children are like sponges. They absorb everything they are taught.

Compared element (A): children ; Comparison element (B): sponges ; Comparison marker: like ; Point of comparison: they absorb

Il était pâle comme la mort.He was as pale as death.

Compared element (A): Il ; Comparison element (B): la mort ; Comparison marker: comme ; Point of comparison: pâle

« Le poète est semblable au Prince des nuées
Qui hante la tempête et se rit de l’archer.»The poet is like the prince of the clouds
Who haunts the storm and laughs at the archer. (Charles Baudelaire, Les Fleurs du Mal)

Compared element (A): Le poète ; Comparison element (B): le Prince des nuées ; Comparison marker: semblable à ; Point of comparison: Qui hante la tempête et se rit de l’archer

Note: A comparison should not be confused with a metaphor.

Ellipsis

Deliberate omission of one or more elements in a sentence

Ellipsis (l’ellipse) is a figure of speech that consists of omitting one or more elements in a sentence that would normally be necessary for its full grammatical structure, without making the meaning unclear. The context allows the reader or listener to understand the sentence, even though it is grammatically incomplete. The missing elements must be mentally reconstructed.

This deliberate omission helps shorten and lighten the sentence, but it can also strengthen the expression.

Example:

Pierre va partir en Australie, Aurélien en Espagne.Pierre is going to leave for Australia, Aurélien for Spain.

Aurélien va partir en Espagne.

« Mère décédée. Enterrement demain. Sentiments distingués. »Mother deceased. Funeral tomorrow. Kind regards. (Albert Camus, L’Étranger)

Ma mère est décédée. L’enterrement aura lieu demain. Veuillez agréer l’expression de mes sentiments distingués.

Euphemism

Softened expression of an unpleasant or sad idea

A euphemism (l’euphémisme) is a figure of speech that replaces the direct expression of a harsh, sad, or unpleasant idea with a milder or softened expression (a word or group of words). In this way, the unpleasant idea becomes easier to accept. Euphemisms are often used out of politeness or convention.

Example:

Je ne partage pas tout à fait ton point de vue.I don’t quite share your point of view.

= You are wrong.

Il nous a quittés.He has left us.

= He has died.

Note: Do not confuse euphemism (qualitative softening) with litotes (quantitative understatement: saying less to suggest more).

Opposite → Hyperbole

Hyperbole

Favourable or unfavourable exaggeration

Hyperbole (l’hyperbole) is the exaggerated expression of an idea or a reality. It highlights a particular aspect of what is being described and creates a strong impression on the reader or listener. This figure of speech is very common, especially in everyday language.

Example:

J’ai tellement faim, je pourrais manger un poulet entier.I’m so hungry I could eat a whole chicken.

Je lui ai dit mille fois de ne pas faire ça.I’ve told him a thousand times not to do that.

Mon oncle est un géant.My uncle is a giant.

Opposite → Euphemisme

Litotes

Saying less to suggest more

Litotes (la litote) is a figure of speech based on understatement: something is expressed in a weakened way in order to suggest a stronger meaning. In other words, less is said to imply more. The softened expression actually reinforces the idea being conveyed. It is usually formed by negating the opposite of the intended meaning.

Example:

Ce n’est pas mal! (= C’est super!)That’s not bad! (= It’s great!)

Il n’est pas bête. (= Il est intelligent.)He is not stupid. (= He is intelligent.)

Note: Do not confuse litotes with euphemism. Unlike euphemism, which softens something unpleasant, litotes strengthens the idea or reality being expressed.

Metaphor

Image resulting from an implicit and immediate comparison

A metaphor (la métaphore) is a figure of speech that involves a transfer of meaning through comparison. It implicitly and instantly connects two different realities or ideas. To do this, a word referring to one reality is associated with another word that usually belongs to a different reality—these two realities being linked by an analogy (they share similarities). In other words, the meaning of words is shifted to create images through a transfer of meaning.

In simple terms, a metaphor is a comparison without a comparison marker. The link between the two elements (the compared element and the comparison element) is therefore much stronger. Instead of A is like B, the structure becomes A is B. The correspondence becomes an identity.

Example:

« La nature est un temple. »Nature is a temple. (Charles Baudelaire, Correspondances)

Nature is like a temple. We can identify the compared element (nature) and the comparison element (temple), but the comparison marker (comme) has disappeared. The meaning of the word temple—with its religious, mysterious and sacred connotations—is directly transferred to the word nature, which then implicitly takes on those characteristics.

There are different types of metaphors:

• Announced metaphor (métaphore annoncée):
  Both the compared element (A) and the comparison element (B) are present.
• Extended metaphor (métaphore filée):
  A series of metaphors built on the same theme, extended over several lines or sentences (often through a shared lexical field).
• Cliché or lexicalized metaphor (métaphore-cliché ou lexicalisée):
  A metaphor that has entered everyday language and become a fixed expression.

See also → Comparison, Metonymy, Allusion

Metonymy

Replacing a noun with another that has a logical connection to it

Metonymy (la métonymie) is a figure of speech in which the name of an object, idea, or concept is replaced by the name of another that has a logical or contextual relationship with it. The meaning is understood through the connection between the two elements.

Unlike metaphor, metonymy is based on an implicit association between two things that are logically related, rather than on similarity. The relationship between the two elements can take different forms, such as:

• the whole for the part / the part for the whole
  

  Example:

  see example below

• the effect for the cause / the cause for the effect
  

  Example:

  boire la mort to drink death

  = to drink poison

• the container for the content / the content for the container
  

  Example:

  boire un verre to drink a glass

  = to drink the contents of a glass

• the material for the object
  

  Example:

  croiser le fer to cross the iron

  = to fight with swords

• etc.

Example:

Le Kremlin dit vouloir lutter contre la corruption.The Kremlin says it wants to fight corruption.

le Kremlin = the Russian government

La Maison blanche a souligné la responsabilité partagée.The White House emphasized shared responsibility.

la Maison blanche = the U.S. government or president

Note: Synecdoche is a particular type of metonymy, but not all metonymies are synecdoches. The two should not be confused.
See also → Metaphor, Synecdoche

Onomatopoeia

A word that imitates a sound or noise

Onomatopoeia (l’onomatopée) is an interjection that imitates a sound made by a living being or an object.

Example:

atchoum (sneeze), aïe (exclamation of pain), badaboum (something or someone falling), plouf (something or someone falling into water)

cocorico (sound of a rooster), meuh (sound of a cow), cui-cui (sound of a bird)

Some words used in everyday language have an onomatopoeic value—they were created from an onomatopoeia.

Example:

le clic-clacthe click-clack sofa bed

named after the sound it makes when unfolded

chuchoterto whisper

from chut, meaning shh

Onomatopoeias are very common in comic books, where they are an essential element.

Oxymoron

Two opposite words placed side by side or linked together

An oxymoron (l’oxymore) is a figure of speech that combines two words with contradictory meanings, which therefore appear incompatible at first glance. These two words may be juxtaposed or coordinated.

An oxymoron creates an unexpected and surprising effect. It allows subtle nuances of thought to be expressed and often has a poetic value.

Example:

« Ma seule étoile est morte, – et mon luth constellé
Porte le soleil noir de la Mélancolie. »My only star is dead—and my starry lute
Bears the black sun of Melancholy. (Gérard de Nerval, « El Desdichado », Les Chimères)

Hâtons-nous lentement.Let us hurry slowly.

Parallelism

Repetition of similar syntactic structures

We speak of parallelism (le parallélisme) when two clauses, sentences, or lines with a similar structure and length are coordinated, juxtaposed, or follow one another. It is therefore a repetition of syntactic structures (at least two sentences, though it may extend over several). Parallelism makes discourse clearer, allowing the reader or listener to understand and remember the message more easily.

Example:

Dieu aima les oiseaux et inventa les arbres.
L’homme aima les oiseaux et inventa les cages.God loved birds and invented trees.
Man loved birds and invented cages. (Jacques Deval)

Note: Parallelism is often used in enumerations. The repeated structure makes the message easier to understand and increases its effectiveness. Work instructions, for example, are often built using parallel structures. Compare the following examples.

Example 1 (without parallelism):

• D’abord il faut ouvrir le livre.First you have to open the book.
• Ensuite tu lis le texte.Then you read the text.
• Regarde les images.Look at the pictures.
• Il faut trouver une réponse aux questions.You have to find answers to the questions.

Example 2 (with parallelism):

• Ouvre le livre.Open the book.
• Lis le texte.Read the text.
• Regarde les images.Look at the pictures.
• Réponds aux questions.Answer the questions.

From these two examples, it becomes clear that the instructions are much clearer in example 2. The reader immediately understands what needs to be done. In example 1, the different sentence structures make the instructions less clear, and the reader—distracted by the variety of grammatical constructions—has more difficulty focusing on the content.

The example given here is very simple, but things can become more complicated with long and complex sentences. In such cases, parallelism helps convey complex information more clearly by presenting it in a structured and explicit way.

Parenthesis

Introducing additional information or a digression

As a figure of speech, parenthesis (la parenthèse) allows the insertion into a sentence of an autonomous element (a word, a group of words, or a whole sentence) that either adds extra information to the main sentence or introduces a digression. This independent element is always set off by commas, parentheses, or dashes.

Example:

L’un des deux – il portait une chemise grise – se tourna vers moi.One of the two—he was wearing a grey shirt—turned toward me.

Personification

Representing an inanimate thing or an animal with human characteristics

Personification (la personnification) is a stylistic device that consists of giving human qualities (behavior, physical appearance, thoughts, etc.) to an animal, an abstract idea, or an inanimate object. Like comparison, metaphor, or metonymy, it is based on analogy, but here the compared element is non-human (animal or object) and the comparison element is a human being. This figure of speech makes a story or discourse more vivid and engaging.

Example:

La mort est venue le chercher.Death came to get him.

« Avec quelle rigueur, Destin, tu me poursuis. »With what severity, Fate, you pursue me. (Jean Racine, Phèdre)

Personification sometimes gives rise to an allegory, in which a living figure represents a quality, concept, or abstraction.

Rhetorical question

A question whose answer is already known by the person asking it

A rhetorical question (la question rhétorique) is a question that does not expect an answer. The answer is already known by the person asking the question, or it is assumed to be known by most people. A rhetorical question is often a yes/no question (one that could theoretically be answered with yes or no).

This apparent question often has an affirmative value: it strengthens a statement while capturing the audience’s attention. Rhetorical questions are frequently used in political speeches and can serve both to express sharp criticism and to persuade an opponent.

Example:

« J’ai vu des tas d’ouvriers qui après 36 ans d’ancienneté gagnaient 1200 euros, qu’est-ce qu’on fait avec 1200 euros par mois? »I’ve seen many workers who, after 36 years of service, earned 1,200 euros—what can you do with 1,200 euros a month? (Nicolas Sarkozy le 26 avril 2007 dans l’émission À vous de juger)

« Quoi ? Tu veux qu’on se lie à demeurer au premier objet qui nous prend, qu’on renonce au monde pour lui, et qu’on n’ait plus d’yeux pour personne ? »What? You want us to bind ourselves to the first person who attracts us, to renounce the world for them, and never look at anyone else again? (Molière, Dom Juan)

Repetition

Repetition of the same word or group of words

The repetition (la répétition) of a word or a group of words in a sentence or a text helps emphasize an idea, a situation, or a key element.

Example:

Ses cheveux étaient noirs, sa chemise était noire, ses chaussures étaient noires.His hair was black, his shirt was black, his shoes were black.

Note: Repetition should not be confused with anaphora, which is the repetition of a word at the beginning of sentences or clauses.

Synecdoche

Replacing a noun with another that has an inclusion relationship with it

Synecdoche (la synecdoque) is a particular type of metonymy. It consists of replacing the name of an object, idea, etc. with the name of another that has a relationship of inclusion or dependency with it. It may express either generalization or specification.

Synecdoche can be based on several conceptual relationships:

• The part for the whole
  

  Example:

  revenu par têteincome per head

  tête = person

  L’ennemi est plus fort que nous.The enemy is stronger than we are.

  ennemi = the ennemies

• The whole for the part
  

  Example:

  L’Espagne a gagné la coupe du monde.Spain won the World Cup.

  Espagne = spanish team

• The specific for the general
  

  Example:

  Tu me passes le Sopalain s’il te plaît?Can you pass me the paper towel, please?

  Sopalain (originally a brand name) = paper towel

  Il a été mis derrière les barreaux.He was put behind bars.

  barreaux = prison

• The general for the specific
  

  Example:

  L’animal s’approcha lentement.The animal approached slowly.

  animal = a particular animal, such as a cat, dog, or snake

• The material for the object or being
  

  Example:

  Elle portait de la fourrure.She was wearing fur.

  fourrure = a fur coat

Note: It is not always easy to distinguish synecdoche from metonymy.